So now let's look at all the bones to make up a full skeleton. So we're standing here next to a mounted dog skeleton. And when we look at this skeleton as a whole like that, we tend to divide into two parts. We talk about the axial skeleton, which is made up of the head, the vertebral column and the ribcage and the Appendicular skeleton, which is made up of the fore limbs and the hind limbs. Let's look at the axial skeleton first with a little bit more detail, and we start off looking at the head. So the head is made up of two parts. So, we can take it apart like this. So this would be the skull. So, in the skull you have the passages for the nose, you have the orbit for the eye, and also makes up the cranium where you have the brain protected within. And it holds on to the upper dental arcades. And then you have the lower jaw or the mandible, which you've got lower dental arcades within it. Walking away down the vertebral column then, the first vertebrae we come to the cervical vertebrae. These are the seven neck vertebrae. And the mammals that we deal with, they all have seven vertebrae even though the horse and the ox and the giraffe, for example, they've got much longer necks and they still have seven vertebrae, just each individual vertebrae is much much larger. So, after the seven vertebrae come to the thoracic vertebrae. So the thoracic vertebrae is where the ribs are attached to it. In the dog you have 13 thoracic vertebrae and 13 ribs. And that varies between species. For example, the horse has got 18 of those. So, they have this very large spine on them, and these ribs coming out. So the ribs then meet together, the ventral aspect and that's the breast bone or the sternum. Further back then here would be the lumbar vertebrae. So this is the low back region. You've got seven lumbar vertebrae here, and they got little transverse processes here and little spine as well. The next one that you come to, you can't really see from there, but that will be the sacrum. And the sacrum is actually three vertebrae. But in the dog here, they all fused together, so they look like one bone. And again, that can vary between species. But this is where the vertebral column attaches on to the pelvis and that's how their hind limb actually attaches to to the rest of the bodies via that part there. So, after the sacrum, you then come to the tail. And that's made of what we call the coccygeal vertebrae. And that can vary in length between animals, between individual dogs, and it can be between five, six coccygeal, up to 20, 25 coccygeal vertebrae. We then go on and have a look at the limbs, the appendicular skeleton. So we'll start off with the forelimb. So in the forelimb, the first part that we'll look up is the scapula, that's the shoulder blade. And then to say a thing about the forelimb is that there is no joints between the shoulder blade and the actual ribcage. This really just floats and is only held on by muscle and that's what is holding the whole forelimb on to the trunk of the animal. So this shoulder blade then, it meets up with this bone here, which is your humerus. And together, they form the shoulder joint. For the humerus more distally, you come to the elbow joint. So the elbow joint is made up with three bones are meeting. So, you've got your humerus coming down and then meets up with the radius, which is here on the cranial aspect. And then you have the ulna on the caudal aspect here. At the distal end here, you then come to the wrist, or the carpals. And that's made up of several carpal bones. So we got our painted model here. So you can see the carpal bone here, they are several of them and all quite cuboidal or square looking bones. We're not going to worry about the names of each individual bone here. But we do have two rows. You have a proximal and a distal row of carpal bones. So, then distal to the carpus, you come down to what we call the metacarpals. So these are the metacarpals. And then the last bones at the bottom here are the digits, the phalanges. If you then go and have a look at the hind limb. So, up at the top here, as already said, touching to the sacrum, you have the pelvis, or the hip bone. So, the pelvis is made up of these two bones here. And they have a nice socket in the side of the pelvic bone there. And that is where the hip joint is. And that's the head of femur,the femur is a thigh bone, attaches, it fits beautifully to that little socket and then makes up the hip joint. And this joint to come to here, it's equivalent of our knee joint. But in the animals, we call it the stifle joint. Just like us, they have a little kneecap. The kneecap is known as the patella, the joint is made up then of the tibia, which is this bone below here, and the fibula. And then at the back here, this would be the equivalent of our ankle. So, we've got this colored inversion again. Again, you've got several little square bones making up this tarsal joints, sometimes it's called the hock joint, and we're not going to worry about the names of all of these, except this biggest bone here, that's colored in red. This is the calcanean and tarsal bone. And this is why I'm mentioning this is because this is where the Achilles tendon comes down. So, just like in us they have an Achilles tendon, we call the calcanean tendon in animals, and it comes down and it attaches onto the tip of that bone there. So that's quite an important bone. So then distal to the tarsal joint, again, just like you have very similar to in the fore limbs, but these are called metatarsals, rather than metacarpals in hind limb. And then again, you have the digits, little bones making up the toes.
