In this lecture segment, we'll focus on some of the most salient features of ancient Chinese religion, which have a direct bearing on our understanding of Confucian philosophy. In particular, we will concentrate on these four topics, and they concern ancestor worship, the supreme deity in the Shang pantheon. I would say a little bit about Shang ritual and divination, and finally I will conclude with some remarks on shamanism and the so-called oracle bone inscriptions in ancient China. First, ancestor worship. A number of tombs dating back to the Shang dynasty in the second millennium B.C.E have been excavated since the beginning of the twentieth century. In all of these tombs, we find a large quantity of funerary objects, such as potteries, bronze weapons and vessels, and also jade and stone ornaments, especially in the so-called royal tombs. The wealth of objects contained in them is truly astounding. In one tomb alone, we find over 10,000 kilograms of bronze objects. Now, to produce them about 10 times of that amount or a hundred metric tons of ore would be needed. This kind of emphasis on burial can only be explained in terms of the religious orientation of the Shang culture, especially the prevalence of ancestor worship. The question we need to ask is this, why worship ancestors? Kinship ties may be an important factor, yes. The belief in an afterlife might be another important consideration. But, in the Shang context, there is another important reason. Ancestor worship is closely connected with the idea of divine kingship. From archaeological and literary evidence, we know that the Shang ruling clan saw itself as having a divine right to rule. In other words, political power was seen to be rooted in and legitimized by religion. Divine sanction enabled the founder of the Shang dynasty to defeat its rivals, and divine sanction also made the continuation of Shang rule possible. A grand ancestor was recognized. Another ancestors were carefully remembered and classified according to their importance in relation to the present ruling line. Regular offerings, food and drinks mostly, were made to the ancestors. Of course, the more important an ancestor is, the more elaborate the ritual. The ancestors were then seen to be divine beings. They can help resolve present difficulties, ensure good hunting and harvests, help to secure a victory in the battlefield, and so on. They can also intercede on the descendants' behalf to gain favors from higher deities. Conversely, if mistreated, they can also bring misfortune to the living. Now, the important point is that with the correct ritual, they are obliged to respond. There is, therefore, a strong sense of reciprocity, which points to the notion of harmony at work in the Shang religious tradition. In addition to the ancestors, Shang religion entertains a host of deities, mostly male and powerful, which reflects the patriarchal structure of Shang society. Most were nature gods, nature deities, gods of the mountains, the sea, rivers, and so forth. But these deities were all ruled by one supreme high god called "Di" in Chinese or "Shangdi," usually translated as the High Lord or the Lord on High. There is little question that Shangdi was seen as the Lord of the universe, or heaven and earth, to use a standard Chinese expression. Shangdi is seen to be all powerful, and therefore must be propitiated lest he send calamities to earth. Offerings, therefore, were made regularly to the Lord on High. Perhaps because of his awesome power and exalted status, the High God perhaps appeared somewhat remote and was often addressed via an intermediary, that is, the king's ancestors. Rituals, as you can well imagine, were very important to the Shang people. According to one reconstruction of the Shang religious calendar, ritual sacrifices were performed almost daily. Typically, ritual sacrifices were performed in an open altar. Animals and grains were offered in burnt offerings. Why burnt offerings, you might ask. But just think of the smoke going upwards to the Heavens. These offerings were made especially to deities who dwell in the sky such as the High God, Shangdi. Wine was offered in libation especially to earth deities. Jade and precious stones were thrown into water for the gods of the rivers and the lakes. Human sacrifice was also practiced in these early days. In this regard, China was no different from any other ancient society. It disappeared from the religious scene, however, by the end of the Shang dynasty, abolished on ethical grounds and replaced by tokens. The now famous Terracotta warriors in Xi'an, China, guarding the tomb of the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, reflect this important change. Now, in important sacrifices made to the High God and the ancestors, the king himself would officiate. This is to be expected since the king's right to rule is a self-dependent on the power and authority of his ancestors and ultimately the High God, Di. The king must be able to communicate with his ancestors to interpret their will in order to perform his duties as a ruler. If the king were unable to communicate with the sacred, then he would not have the right to rule. If he were unwilling to carry out his religious duties, then he would only invite disasters and lose his claim to the throne. In Shang China, as in other ancient civilisations, there was no escape really from the power and constant intervention of spirits, gods, and ancestors. The king then served as both the head of the state and also the head priest, if you like. For this reason, the Shang state is sometimes described as a theocracy.
