"The Zhou took into view the two (preceding) ages.
How richly brilliant is its culture!
I follow the Zhou," according to the Analects.
Now, this passage quoting Confucius,
may be explained more fully this way.
The Zhou dynasty, scrutinized,
examined and learned from the rituals and institutions of
the previous two dynasties, namely the Xia and the Shang.
And how richly brilliant according to Confucius is the culture of the Zhou dynasty.
Therefore, he concludes that he would follow the rituals and institutions of the Zhou.
Now you see why we need to provide at least a bit of historical background.
There are several other statements in the Analects
pointing to the importance of history in Confucius' thinking.
In fact, I would even argue that
Confucian Philosophy reflects a keen historical consciousness,
but more on that later.
In this lecture, we will take a brief tour
of the intellectual world of Zhou dynasty China.
The Zhou period is a very important period in
Chinese history during which the foundation of Chinese philosophy was laid.
The Zhou dynasty replaced the Shang around 1050 B.C.E.
Before that, the Zhou people were referred to in
Shang records as a tributary state subservient to the Shang State.
But the Zhou clan gradually grew stronger.
And as the Shang house grew weaker,
It came to challenge its former master.
Now, I won't go into the political and military side of the story here.
Suffice it to say that later literary sources
remember King Wen and his son King Wu of the Zhou,
as the decisive figures who led the Zhou clan to power.
These figures are frequently mentioned in
Confucian writings which is why we need to introduce them here.
The Zhou empire was much larger than that of the Shang
extending from the Yellow River basin southwards towards the Yangtze River.
The increase in size means that it was also more difficult to govern.
The Zhou Kings adopted basically what may be called a feudal system of governance.
That is to say, they gave out titles, land
and military protection especially against the nomadic tribes from
the north to close relatives and others who merit such recognition.
For example, the descendants of
the Shang house were given a small feudal state of their own.
In return, the various feudal states would pledge
the allegiance to the Zhou King and pay tributes every year,
for example, ingraining and precious objects.
The feudal lords themselves could grant smaller domains to their relatives and officers.
Rulership was passed on by hereditary succession generally on the basis of primogeniture.
This was an innovation actually because
the earlier Shang state generally practised collateral succession,
that is brothers first before sons.
And the Zhou system was to remain the norm throughout traditional China.
The majority of the people would be peasant farmers,
who worked for the feudal lords.
They would pay taxes and serve as laborers and soldiers.
Political stability was achieved due especially to
the effort of one Duke of Zhou according to traditional Chinese sources.
Now I mention him because,
later he was idealized by Confucians as the model of a good minister.
During the Zhou period many important cultural changes took place.
As in our discussion of the Shang dynasty,
I will focus on several developments in religion because
they bear directly on the rise of classical Chinese Philosophy.
When compared with the Shang tradition,
we see that the Zhou also worshipped
a supreme high god and other deities, especially nature deities.
The Zhou, like the Shang,
also practised ancestor worship.
Divine kingship remained the dominant belief.
Ritual and divination continued to dominate the religious scene.
So, in all these areas continuity is clearly discernible,
but at the same time changes were made to all these as well.
First, with respect to ancestor worship,
obviously Zhou ancestors replaced those of the Shang.
King Wen and King Wu,
the real founders of the dynasty,
were of course very important.
Second, with respect to the high god and other deities,
there were changes also.
For one thing, there were more deities now the Pantheon has grown.
And Shang Di, the high god of the Shang people gave way to a new supreme deity special to
the Zhou people called "Tian" or "Heaven" as the term is usually translated.
Tian was understood as a sky-god,
an all powerful deity who could bring blessings and disasters to the people,
and who granted the Zhou leaders the right to rule.
In addition to his power,
the high god is also seen now as a righteous and compassionate Heaven.
Heaven will have mercy for his creatures.
Heaven, moreover, will protect and reward the good and it will punish the bad.
In other words, during the Zhou dynasty,
moral virtue became a central religious and philosophic category in Chinese history.
It is in this context that we find the first mention of
a key concept in Chinese thought namely the concept of "Heaven's Mandate,
Ordinance or Decree," Tianming.
The importance of this concept can hardly be overstated.
It has helped to shape Chinese culture in all its aspects from
the Zhou period to at least the first half of the 20th century.
Today it may not be conspicuous but its influence can still be discerned.
What this concept means is that the Zhou conquest of
Shang was seen not only as a political or military event,
but as a religious one as well.
The Zhou believed that they had acquired divine sanction.
A Decree or Mandate from Heaven to overthrow the Shang.
The Mandate of Heaven moreover,
was granted only because the Zhou leaders proved to be extremely virtuous.
It is said that the early Shang Kings also were very good,
virtuous, and that is why they had the mandate to rule.
Later descendants however as the Zhou historians continued to reimagine history,
later descendants of the Shang however became bad and cruel,
they indulged in all sorts of excesses especially
drinking without regard for the well-being of the people.
At the same time,
the virtue of the Zhou founders was felt and recognized by all.
Therefore, Heaven decided to favor the Zhou,
the rest, as the saying goes is history.
This theory has become a part of the Chinese imagination ever since.
Today, the expression "Tianming" is still used often in the context of
a kind of fatalism pointing to forces and circumstances beyond one's control.
In the Zhou period however,
moral conduct is seen to have a decisive influence on Heaven.
It is therefore not fatalistic at all.
When taken to its logical conclusion,
the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven actually can serve to
justify both dynastic rule and revolution.
So new ideas and concerns were in the air.
With the idea of Heaven's Mandate,
also came the notion that the King represents the son of Heaven.
This is an idea which was to last until the founding of the Chinese Republic in 1911,
and still survives in popular Chinese expressions.
On the ritual front,
things were becoming more and more elaborate and complex.
In particular, the sacrifice to Heaven was especially important.
Since the king is the son of Heaven,
only he could perform that ceremony.
In Beijing today, you can still visit a place called the Tian Tan,
The Altar of Heaven where this sacrifice was held.
Shamans were still in charge of religious sacrifices,
but now they also became more institutionalized.
And a government ministry in fact was established to oversee religious functions.
Some would consider these religious experts to be
the predecessors of their classical philosophers.
A new method of divination also came into being,
which replaced the Oracle bone method and became
a major factor in the development of Chinese culture as a whole.
This method actually it can still be consulted today as it is preserved in
a book entitled "The I Ching(Yijing)," "Classic or Book of Changes."
Confucius is reported to have said late in his life that if given
more years to live he would devote his time to reading the Yijing.
You can imagine the importance of this book in Chinese history and culture.
Alan K. L. ChanToh Puan Mahani Idris Daim Chair Professor of Humanities & Dean
