-In this video, we will be interested in the technical characteristics of charging infrastructures. We will see how the deployment of public charging infrastructure contributes to the development of electric vehicles and we will draw up a situational analysis of charging infrastructure distribution in France as well as their establishment conditions on the territory. To understand the charging infrastructure, we must distinguish the different elements it is made of. First, the charging point represents the outlets in which the electric vehicle can be plugged to charge the battery. Each outlet corresponds to a connector standard which is different depending on the vehicle model. A charging point can include several outlets but it can only charge one car at a time. In premises open to the public, charging infrastructures are terminals including one or several charging points that can charge the battery of one or several vehicles simultaneously. A terminal can include different types of connectors to charge different electric vehicle models. Each charging terminal can have a different charging mode which corresponds to different speeds. When several terminals are located in the same place, it is called a charging station. Charging points and stations are physical spaces to charge vehicles whereas outlets and terminals are technical objects used to charge. A public charging infrastructure represents all the charging points that are included in the charging terminals accessible to the public. These charging points can be owned by a private or public entity, located on the street or in private spaces such as car parks, and can be accessed freely or after payment of a service fee. In this video, we will focus on the infrastructure for light cars and commercial vehicles. Currently, scooters, bikes and other three- or four-wheeled bikes can only be charged on household outlets. Electric heavy trucks and buses use other connector standards. According to a 2014 IPSOS survey, 78% of car drivers travel less than 50 km per day. However, the fear of a breakdown is still a strong brake on the purchase of an electric vehicle. On a daily basis, public charging is rare or even exceptional. 90% of charging is done at home. Yet, infrastructure deployment in public places is required in order to decrease the fear linked to the vehicle's autonomy. In 2014, 51% of French inhabitants mentioned the lack of infrastructures as a brake on the purchase of an electric vehicle. With the development of the charging point network, this fear has decreased almost by half since in 2016, only 28% of the respondents mentioned it as a brake on purchase. The development of the charging infrastructure network is also required to diversify the uses of electric vehicles and not restrict it to day-to-day mobility anymore. Charging in public places is a way to travel over long distances by providing a charge complement along the ride. The different power levels provided by the charging infrastructure enable different charging speeds for the vehicle. As an example, let us consider a car with a 25 kW battery. The normal 3 kW speed can charge the vehicle in 8 to 12 hours. The accelerated charge will last about 1 hour at 22 kW. As for fast-charging, it will charge the vehicle in 20 to 30 minutes at over 43 kW. On a daily basis, the normal charge is the most common charge mode. The vehicle can thus be charged when it is parked at home, at the office, or in the street. Cars are idle 80% of the time. Thus, the 3 kW charge speed is enough to charge a vehicle when not in use. Public space charging is often an opportunity or booster charge for a complement on the place of activity. For some drivers, fast-charging is a necessity to travel over long distances. Either for work or leisure, if the travel exceeds the vehicle's autonomy, a pause is required to charge the car. For these travels exceeding 80 km, fast-charging points must be located by users who plan their travel in advance in order to be sure to have a functional terminal. Regarding the outlet types, in a country like France, 7 different outlet standards are competing for the charge of electric vehicles, including the household outlet. There are 4 standards for fast-charging alone. The diversity of these standards does not necessarily mean there are technical incompatibilities since charging infrastructures usually include outlets corresponding to several standards. Also, manufacturers have developed cables to switch from one standard to another just like power adapters used for household outlets. At the end of 2016, the French company Groupement pour l'itinérance des recharges électriques de véhicules, GIREV, made an inventory of 15 883 charge points in 5 297 stations in France, thus almost 50% more than in 2015. However, the network is not evenly distributed. Its establishment depends on the strategies of the local actors. There is still an imbalance between regions. Furthermore, since it is handled by several companies, there are technical and commercial interoperability issues. Indeed, the national and European charging infrastructure network is made of many networks at different scales. Municipal networks are built alongside regional networks, independently of the automotive manufacturers' network such as Nissan or Tesla, and alongside national networks built by providers such as EDF, Bolloré and the Compagnie nationale du Rhône. This network superposition creates commercial interoperability issues. When the first public charge infrastructure networks were deployed, most of these, in particular those of manufacturers and local governments, were free of charge with unrestricted access to promote the use of electric vehicles. Today, most of these networks require a badge to use their terminals. These badges can be provided after a subscription or work on a pay-per-use basis. Some users can have 2 or 3 badges or up to 10 for the most mobile persons. Since commercial interoperability is an indispensable condition for the successful development of electric vehicles, interoperability platforms have been created. They unite charging infrastructure managers. These platforms are a guarantee for the interoperability of the partner networks. At the same time, some companies took a stance on this issue by providing interoperable badges such as the KiWhi Pass which grants access to all the partner networks: manufacturer networks, private operator networks such as car parks, or public networks. Mobility practices are different depending on the territories in which they occur. Mobility and urban forms are interdependent. The first shapes the second which structures it. Over the last years, there has been a differentiation in mobility practices according to the territories. Car mobility is decreasing in large agglomerations but distances are increasing in suburban and rural areas while the number of travels is becoming stable. It has several consequences on the deployment of public charging infrastructure. The latter must be adapted to mobility practices in the territories. According to Avere, the French public charging points represented in 2016 13% of the available charging infrastructure. The 2007-2008 transport and travels national survey revealed that 60% of the French inhabitants possess a reserved parking space at home and 65% of them have an outlet nearby. Public charging associated with a parking space becomes a requirement in residential spaces for users who cannot charge at home so they can charge their vehicle at night. In urban areas, public charging infrastructures are usually associated with normal or accelerated charge speeds. These infrastructures located in the street provide a welcome parking slot in cities where they become very rare as well as a charge complement during the user's activity. As for fast-charging, it is not necessary in mid- and long-term parking slots. On the contrary, it corresponds to short-time uses and a parking time which equals the charge duration, or about 30 minutes. It is a good way to optimize the users' turnaround time. This is why fast-charging networks are being developed in passage areas, along highways and trunk roads. This infrastructure is mainly used for necessity charges that are mandatory for users to carry on their travel. Public charging infrastructure complements the private and company charge. It is also a way to reassure potential electric vehicle users regarding the battery's autonomy by providing charging point in the city but also in suburban and rural areas as well as in passage areas. The deployment of this infrastructure network is formed on the initiative of the different actors and requires interoperability between the different local networks in order to guarantee a smooth electric mobility on a national and European scales.
