You pick up your iPhone while waiting in line at a coffee shop. You google a not-so-famous actor, get linked to a Wikipedia entry listing his recent movies and popular YouTube clips of several of them. You check out user reviews on Amazon and pick one, download that movie on BitTorrent or stream that in Netflix. But suddenly the WiFi logo on your phone is gone and you're on 3G. Video quality starts to degrade, but you don't know if it's the server getting crowded or the Internet is congested somewhere. In any case, it costs you $10 per Gigabyte, and you decide to stop watching the movie, and instead multitask between sending tweets and calling your friend on Skype, while songs stream from iCloud to your phone. You're happy with the call quality, but get a little irritated when you see there're no new followers on Twitter. You may wonder how they all kind of work, and why sometimes they don't. Take a look at the list of 20 questions below. Each question is selected not just for its relevance to our daily lives, but also for the core concepts in the field of networking illustrated by its answers. This course is about formulating and answering these 20 questions.
Computing with Large Data Sets: Moses Charikar
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From the course by Princeton University
Networks: Friends, Money, and Bytes
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From the lesson
Guest Lectures
This contains various guest lectures from renowned members of academia and industry who are experts across the topics covered in this course.
Meet the Instructors
Mung ChiangProfessor
Electrical Engineering
Christopher BrintonLecturer
Electrical Engineering
All right I have to start with a caveat. Mung asked me to talk about search
algorithms and I sort of interpreted that fairly broadly.
And I changed the topic somewhat. What I'm really going to talk about is How
we do things with very large data sets very efficiently.
And this is something that's very closely linked to searching at web scale, the
kinds of algorithms that Google and other search engines have to deploy in order to
be able to do anything at all with just the large volumes of data that they have
to deal with. But at the same time it's not there are
lots of special topics we could go into about search itself.
As Mung alluded to in his lecture. And there are many things that he
attributed to what I would cover in the 30 minutes I, I have, but I'm.
Afraid I'm not going to be able to cover that.
So I'm happy to answer these questions later perhaps if you, if you'd like.
But I just want to warn you it's a little big of a, of a diversion, but a relevant
diversion I hope. Okay?
So I want to start with talking about. Some problems that, people face when
they're trying to deal with very large data sets.
And having discussed those problems, I'll talk about new ways of thinking that have
evolved to design algorithms to deal with them.
And then finally, we'll come up with some, I'll describe some building blocks of the
algorithmic tool kit to design algorithm for very large data sets.
I recognize a few faces in the audience. Those of you who have taken 340 last year.
Some of this might be a repeat of things you have seen before.
And for those of you who haven't taken 340, those who are in the.
Currently 340, it's a little bit of a preview of something that you might see
later on in the course. So I will start with a very simple
problem. Suppose you are given a list, how do you
count how many distinct elements are in this list?
Any ideas? >> This is supposed to be an easy
question. A sample question.
>> Do you count them? >> Yeah.
>> Do you count them? >> Yes.
How do you count them? >> 1,2,3.
>> Yeah, yeah, yeah. How do you know that the, okay, so the,
the list could have repeats. Right?
And you don't want to count the repeats. How do you eliminate the repeats?
Yeah. >> I mean, you could like, go through each
element on the list and then build like a simple table or something and you just
keep putting elements and if it's a repeat you just discount it.
>> Exactly. Okay.
You, you want to say something? >> [inaudible].
You can sort them. And, and then just go to the sorted list.
So either of these solutions would work. And, of course, this is a very simple
problem. One that you might encounter in a very
first algorithms course. You know, a standard solution is to use a
hash table. You could also use sorting, right?
A hash table is just the same thing as a symbol table.
As you encounter elements, put them into the hash table.
And obviously, if you encounter a duplicate, [inaudible] realize this.
Okay, so this is a very simple problem. What makes this problem very hard is, What
happens if the list was very big? What if you had to do this not on, you
know, 1000 elements, but a billion elements.
Or a trillion elements. Okay?
Then all of a sudden, you know, all of these simple approaches, like using a hash
table or using, or doing sorting or whatever, go out of the window.
It, well number one you need a whole bunch of, a whole lot of memory to actually keep
a hash table. And of course modern computers are capable
of doing hash tables even of this size perhaps.
But you know, this size where sort of it's C, okay?
Sorting again, you know? Sorting such a huge list takes a very long
time. Okay?
So, why would you care about a problem like this?
Well, if you think about Google. For example, some statistics that, they,
they released earlier this year saying that you know, Google in its entire life
time has seen something like. 30 trillion URLs.
They crawl something like twenty billion pages a day and they serve about three
billion searches a day which means, you know, 100 billion searches a month.
Okay. So that's the scale at which they are
operating. And If you had to solve the simplest kinds
of, if you had to answer the simplest kinds of questions about what they do.
Like, you know, how many queries did they get in a day?
How many distinct queries they get in a day?
How many distinct queries did they get in a month or a year?
You're faced with solving what seems to be a very simple problem.
But is very difficult just because of the immense scale at which you need to
operate. Okay.
Of course, you know? Distinct, answering this question of how
many distinct queries you have is the very simple statistic that you might want to
compute and keep track of as time, as time goes by.
But you might want more sophisticated statistics like, you know, how much did
the queries change from day to day? How much are they different today compared
to yesterday. How much are they different this month
compared to previous month. This month compared to the same month last
year and so on and so forth. And all of these very, very simple
westerns just seem incredibly difficult when your dealing with, you know, the
sizes of data that go with the info. Okay.
You know, there are other settings where you have, lots of data and you'd like to,
come up with algorithms, real simple things.
You know, a network router is one example. It sees a lot of packets whizzing by at
fast speed, you know. Current, home routers are even capable of
speeds. About a one gigabyte per second.
Commercial routers are capable of speeds of something like ten gigabytes per
second. The router is something that's, that's,
you know, really simple computing device, all it does is receive packets and forward
them along. It could perhaps do some very simple sort
of analysis on the data when it's sync. How could you use this very, very simple
computing device To do simple monitoring like you know, can you tell me how many
active flows are there, are, are in the router.
You know, which are the flows that are contributing most, most of the traffic.
And these things are important because monitoring these sorts of things are
essential to you know, various security measures like, Early detection of denial
of service attacks. Okay?
It's important to keep track of, you know, what's going on, what sort of traffic
you're seeing, because changes in this might signal that something strange is
happening and you might want to take some security measures.
Okay? So very, very simple statistics like this
are, are a huge challenge just because of the amount of data that this router is
seeing and the fact that the router itself is a very, very simple device.
Okay? So.
You know in general there's the stock of big data everywhere.
If you, if you read the news read magazines you know, every other day
there's a, there's an article about how we're surrounded with data, we need to
find ways to make sense of the data, and. What I am really going to talk about is
what are some of the algorithmic techniques that we can do to tame these,
that we can use to tame these big data problems.
Okay, alright. So, that's, that's the introduction of
what the problems are. Let me talk about what, what models we
could envision to design algorithms. So this clearly, our traditional notion
of, you know having all of the data available to us.
Having the algorithm that has random access to the data.
You know, fitting all the data in memory. All of this, doesn't really apply when we
are dealing with data at such large scale. So you know, the two operatives are,
number one, you know, the data size is very large.
It far exceeds the available memory. And that's just a reality we have to face.
We can't actually store all the data in memory.
And the other thing is that there's a new emphasis on efficiency.
Usually when you design algorithms, polynomial time algorithms are considered.
Efficient and implementable. But, in reality, when you are dealing with
data size, size of this, this scale, your algorithms are run in you know, linear,
near linear time perhaps. You know.
Even something like quadratic, at, at the scales of which we talked about are
[inaudible], okay? So that's, that's what we are.
Those are, sort of the, the barometers. Okay.
So one kind of model that's used, we'll see, later on in the, in the, in the
lecture is. The idea of taking our [inaudible] and
somehow reducing it to a smaller size, okay?
So, it turns out that we can do this is many cases.
Replace the original data by some kind of compact summary.
Such that, you know, by. Discarding the original data, and just
looking at this compact summary. We can actually solve, or we can actually
answer the questions that we care about. Now, it would be wonderful [inaudible] if
you could do this. Because you would [inaudible] reduce the
data size. It turns out that in many cases, this is
actually possible, okay? Now, you know, one thing you never give up
on is the idea that you really want to solve a problem exactly.
In most cases, like, you know? If you wanna find out how many distinct
elements were there in the queries. Do you really care about.
Whether I give you a one percent approximate answer, or whether I give you
the exact answer, it doesn't really matter.
So, in most cases of interest it's okay to not give the exact answer, but give
something that is fairly accurate. And turns out that this relaxation moving
from getting the exact answer to tolerating some error.
[inaudible] error is something that actually makes many problems tractable.
Okay? So we'll see some examples of this, this
idea. Another idea that's, that's been very
useful. Is, a certain model called, the streaming
model. And a streaming model is the following.
It says, you know, we, you have to design your algorithms.
It operates in the following way. Imagine the data as being, you know, one
stream. And you make one pass over the data.
Or perhaps, you know, [inaudible]. A few passes over the data.
But you can remember only a small amount of information relative to the size of the
area. So, you can afford to remember very little
and you are only allowed to. See the data in one bias or in several
biases. So in, for example, you know you're going
to zig zag back and forth. You don't have random access to the data,
okay? And the point is, if you've actually
designed an algorithm that works in this very, very restrictive way, could actually
run it in on very large areas that's very efficient.
Okay. So it seems like we're really, really
tying our hands and, you know, putting a blindfold on.
How could we possibly do anything in this very, very restricted mode of operation?
But turns out that there are very interesting things that you can do even
when you restrict yourself to interacting with this data in this very controlled
way. Just a little bit of history of, you know,
where this notion of streaming algorithms came from.
Actually the. This idea of, trying to design algorithms,
at work you know, in one pass of the data, remembering very little.
Predates. You know, the internet even are big data
sets, and so on. It was really Sort of a, a fun problem
that people worked on in fact, you know, they're.
There's, there's some work by [inaudible] and Martin that exactly deals with this
problem of estimating distinct elements. And this is, we're actually gonna see
what, what was the idea that they came up with.
Because it's actually relevant today. To the scale of, for the data sizes that
we're actually faced with today. You know, another, another piece of work,
back in 1980 was, by Monroe and Patterson. And they look at the problem of, you know,
how much space do you need in order to compute the media.
So, you know, you have a data set of size, and.
You have only a small amount of space. You can make a few parcels of the data.
Without K parcels, how much space do you think to actually compute the median?
And if I found a very sort of tied on sense to this question turns out if they
are allowed to make K parcels, you can do it using something like N to the one zero
K space. Okay, and these, these algorithms, as I
said, were newly developed very, very early on, even before this model was
really formalized. This model was really formalized by Work
of Alon and Matias in 1796. This was a landmark paper because it
really sort of, formalized this model. It talked about, you know, what you can
and cannot do in this model, get examples of how you, how to pull negative results.
And for this work, they won the Gou0308del Prize in 2005, which is a very prestigious
prize in Computer Science. Okay, so, Let me also mention, some of you
might have seen, heard about MapReduce. That's another model of interacting with
radar data sets, something that was proposed by Google, in fact.
And it is the basis for a bunch of practical implementations and disparate
algorithms. There is something called Hadoop that some
of you might have heard of. All of this is sort of relevant to the
discussion of how do you deal with large data sets very efficiently.
But unfortunately, I'm not going to have time to talk about all of these things,
okay? So, next in the rest of the lecture I just
wanna talk, give you a glimpse of some of the, the ideas that algorithm, the
ingredients of the algorithms. O be with [inaudible].
So this is why I gave everyone the problems.
I told how we might interact with data sets in order to solve these problems.
Now I want to tell you, okay. Now that we've tied our hands for once
over this problem, very large area. Okay so, how do we actually do it.
So, I talk about data reduction the idea. Table data set is reducing the silent data
set. Actually if we think about it this is,
this is a concept that we know and are very, very familiar with in our lives.
So you know, if you were to ask the question what fraction of voters today
prefer Obama over Romeny, [inaudible] Other than questions, all people get
about. But very difficult to answer those
questions if you really wanna know what exact [inaudible] is.
Right? You have to ask every single word, what do
you think? What do you prefer?
Takes a lot of time and effort to actually get the exact answer.
We really do this every once in every four years for a good reason.
On the other hand this is something that people actually make predictions about.
Every day. Every day, you look at the newspaper, and,
and you get, you know? Some estimate of wh-, you know?
What's the, what's the approval rating of Obama today?
What's the approval rating yesterday, you know?
How many, and various other questions that you might, you might think about.
So, This is something that we solve, or, or certainly solve every day, by sampling,
okay. We don't actually ask everybody what their
opinion is. But the point is, if you actually pick a
random set of people, and you ask them, what is your opinion, that, the percentage
that you compute on the random sample, is actually a very good estimate of the
actual percentage of the entire population.
Okay that is George Gallup. And you know, all of you heard about, read
about Gallup polls, something, done by the Gallup organization that he set up.
Okay, so let's think about sampling. What, what is sampling does, what does
sampling do? The idea is if you pick a random voter and
you ask them, you know, do you prefer Obama, then the probability that this
random voter says yes is just a fraction of voters that prefer Obama, right?
It's a basic fact. Do we agree on this?
Okay, alright. It's a very simple thing.
But this is actually very useful. Why?
Because, now, if you pick several random orders, and, you know, independently ask
them the same question. Then the estimate that you get from the
random sample is actually a very good estimate of the actual fraction.
Okay? That's, that's the basis for polling.
That's the basis for random sampling, okay?
So let's, let's all take a step back, and think about what this, what this actually
did. The idea is that you produce a random
variable. Which has a correct expectation.
Okay? In this case, the expectation is the
fraction of voters who prefer Obama. This is the, this is the quantity that we
actually want to ask about. So you, you design a random variable that
has a correct expectation. You take many copies, independent samples
of this random variable, and you average. Alright.
Because this kind of variable has the right expectation once you take many
copies. The, the expectation of the average is, is
exactly what you want, but the point is that by taking many copies and averaging,
you get tied concentration. Okay.
Now, in reality, if you really wanna analyze this.
You need to think about what's the variance of the random variable.
You know, what's the confidence balance that you want on your estimate, and so and
so forth. This is a topic for probability which some
of you may have seen, some of you may not. I'm not gonna go into this.
But believe me that, you know, once you design a variable [inaudible] with the
right expectations. With you know, a little more calculations,
you can sort of determine what sort of sample size you need in order to get.
Confidence bonds and so on and so force. Okay so, I'm only going to focus on.
For all the bonds we care about, we're gonna try to design random variables that
have the right expectations. Okay.
And further, the important thing is that these random variables, will be computable
very, very efficiently by making just one pass over the data.
Okay? That's the, that's the key idea that we're
gonna [inaudible]. Alright, so let's, having said that, let's
go back to our version of distinct elements.
It turns out that the solution that [inaudible] and Martin came up with is, is
tied to a simple puzzle. Okay?
So let me tell you what the puzzle is. I know some of you probably know the
answer to this question. If you haven't seen this before, I
encourage you to. Think about it, So here's the experiment.
Okay. So, let's say you have the interval 0-1.
And you throw K random darts inside this interval.
So you pick K random points in the interval 0-1.
Okay? Everyone, experiment clear?
Okay. So the question is, what's the expected
value of the minimum of these k elements? Any guesses?
If you had to guess what w-, what should the minimum be?
Okay, so zero seems a little extreme. Because for, for it to be zero, you want
some element to line up here. What I'd like to know is, what, is it as a
function of K? And you're right that, in some sense, as K
gets larger and larger, this minimum is gonna get closer and closer to zero.
[inaudible] understand what behavior is. >> 1/k is actually a very good guess.
>> What about k + one? >> 1/k + one is actually, a better guess.
So okay. How do you guys wanna work, 1/k or 1/k +
one? >> The probably it is lesser, if it was
going to the lowest, is going to be 1/k + one because probability of each of k + one
in the list is that. And that's what's same as the probability
of it being lower than the lowest third ...
>> Okay, okay. But how does that help you compute the
expected value of the mineral? >> Because then you know that the
probability of it landing lower than the lowest star right now is [inaudible].
So that the expected value of, the expected length of that segment is one
over K+1. I think your suggesting a very slick proof
which escapes me at this moment. And after, when you, when you stand in
front of the glass, your like, you usually drops like 50%.
So I think you're probably right. But maybe we should, we should talk about
this after class. Okay, so Don't know the right answer is
indeed one over k+1. And we might have a very clever proof of
that here. If you didn't know that the answer, you
know, what the answer should be. You know, the way I, I usually think about
this problem is, well. It's kinda reasonable to assume that these
k elements are sort of uniformly spread in the interval K 0-1.
Okay? And if that's really the case, if we
believe this. Then, you know, each of these gaps should
be, you know, one over K+1, there are K gaps.
So, in fact, the smallest sum, which would be one over K+1.
Okay. This is very crude, you know?
It's no, by no means, the correct answer. But, you know, if we are to guess, one
over K or one over K+1 is a reasonable guess.
And if you actually do the calculations, it turns out that it is indeed one over
K+1. Alright, good.
So if you, if you have the minimum of K random numbers in 01, the expected value
is [inaudible] +one. Why is this actually important to the
question that we started out with? The question was, how do you estimate how
many distinct elements there are? In your data stream.
How could you use this fact, to estimate the number of distinct elements?
Yeah. [inaudible] You spend that would give you.
>> Okay? >> [inaudible] Okay.
So I, I think I know what you're saying. How'bout this?
Imagine computing a hash value for every element.
And this hash value is a number between zero and one.
So think of our hash function as a random function.
So it assigns every element a number between zero and one, at random.
And we keep track of the minimum as we go along.
Okay? We see many copies of the same element.
The hash function is always gonna map onto the same value.
The minimum doesn't change, right? So what is the minimum, really?
The minimum is just the same, the distribution of the minimum is just the
minimum of K random values and zero one. To the expected value of the [inaudible],
is one over K plus one. Great we're done.
If you actually wanted to get a good estimate of the number of the [inaudible]
elements, you would compute not one hash function, but maybe 100 hash functions or
1,000 hash functions. Keep track of all of them.
Okay? And the end average.
And you get a very good estimate of one over K +one.
Where K is the number of distinct elements.
Invert this, and you have a very good estimate of the number of distinct
elements, okay? There's a really beautiful trick,
originally discovered by [inaudible] and Martin.
And it's, it's amazing how it, it completely bypasses the need to store any
sort of hash function, do any sort of sorting.
And comes up with a very good estimate of the number of distinct elements.
Okay? Alright.
Next I wanna talk a little bit. Actually I don't have very much time so
I'm gonna have to breeze through this, this section.
A class of methods that are used to. Figure out, you know, in your, in a very
large collection of documents. Which documents are similar?
Again, this is actually an important problem, because number one, when a web s,
web search engine crawler goes out, it brings in a bunch of documents and many
duplicates and near duplicates. And you wanna get rid of these guys,
There's no point in Google returning 100 results, which are almost the same.
It wants, you know? It, it wants resul, return results that
are distinct. And ideally, actually, not even store
these [inaudible] documents, so that's number one.
And technically, you know, in addition to not storing them sometimes.
At query time you might want to figure out that the results of the [inaudible],
[inaudible] user are almost the same and you might want to suppress these things
that are almost the same. And if you searched on Google, you might
often see, you know, there are. So many resolves that are very similar to
the ones we have shown to you. And we suppressed them.
If you'd like to see them, then click here, right?
So there are various reasons why you'd like to [inaudible] duplicate documents.
Now, you know? This is sort of a difficult question.
How do you find an element [inaudible] duplicate documents.
And I'm gonna describe a scheme that was originally developed by Andre [inaudible]
and his collaborators, in the context of a search engine called Alta Vista.
Which, in the old days, predated Google, and was the leading search engine of the
time. Now, you know, I'm, I'd be surprised if
very many of you know about Alta Vista at all.
So, let, let me so very quickly describe the main idea behind this.
It was a very, very cute idea. First I would [inaudible] you, how do you
define similarity of documents? Right?
What does it mean for two documents to be similar?
There are many was of doing this. One way is the following.
You take your document. It's the Declaration of Independence.
And you slide a window of three words across the document.
And look at all the three word sequences that you encounter.
In doing this, that's your set. So now I've taken the document and I've
produced a set. And so they'll think of the set as
representative of the document. Having produced sets I can now define
similarity of two sets. And I'll use that as a measure of
similarity of the original documents. One reasonable measure of similarity of
the documents is the following, look at how much they overlap, look at the size of
the intersection, whatever size of the union.'Kay.
So henceforth let's agree that this is the measure of similarity that we'll use.
Okay. If two documents are identical, the sets
they produce would be identical so similarity would be one and we are going
to work with a hypothesis similarity of reasonable measure.
Similarity defined this way of is a reasonable measure of, of similar
document. Okay?
So here's a question, right? Can you produce a sketch?
A very short summary of a document. A set, in this case.
So as that, you can estimate the similarity just by looking at these two
sketches. Instead of actually looking at the written
document. So, clearly I can look at the full text of
the document, compare them. And [inaudible].
But that would be too slow. And, you know, not acceptable.
So, can I get rid of the original documents?
Replace them all by short sketches. And estimate this invariant just by
looking at these short sketches. This is something that you could actually
hope to do at run time. Right?
If you actually had to go and look at the original documents at run time, not a good
idea. Alright.
The first thing is that. First thing that might come to mind, is
something called random [inaudible]. You might say well how I'm storing a
random subsets of elements. This just does not work.
Okay. If you have two doc, two sets with ten
thousand elements let's say. Identical.
What's the? I mean if you look at a random sample from
set A and a random sample from set B. Say you sample 100 elements.
The expected intersection of these two samples is one.
It gives you no information whatsoever that these two sets are identical.
So, random sampling, per se, doesn't work. Okay?
But here's a little variant of random sampling that actually works.
Okay? And it's amaz-, it's, it's actually very,
very cute. And it's very, it's related, in some
sense, to what we did before. So here's the idea.
You apply random [inaudible], hash function to every element.
Of the universe, incase you have a random hash function.
You apply to every element of the set, and you just remember the minimum.
Kay, let's assume that we have no collision, so we have a high function that
has no collision. And here's the claim; the claim is that
the probability with a minimum of A is equal to the minimum of B is just a
similarity of A and B. Okay.
So it's actually not very hard to show this.
Maybe I'll leave this as an exercise. The, the claim again is the following.
You know, you have two sets, A and B. Let's say you apply a hash function to
every element in the universe. You look at the minimum over A, the
minimum over B. Assuming that there are no collisions.
What's the probability that the minimum over A is equal to minimum over B.
The claim is that this, probably is exactly this.
Okay. So, great.
We have been able, we, we're able to design random variable that has exactly
this expectation, to get high, you know, get a high confidence estimate.
You would do this not with one hash function, but with 100 hash functions.
And for every set, you would store a sketch consisting of the minimum with 100
such hash functions. Okay.
And now you can use these sketches. Do I have to get a very good estimate of
somebody? Alright.
I had hoped to talk about a lot more, which I will skip.
But, maybe I'll, I'll give the slides to [inaudible], and he can post them.
This is another scheme to estimate similarity that I actually worked on when
I was at Google. I'm not gonna be able to tell you about
it. But, you can look at the slides a little
later. I just wanted to say that, you know?
Many of these, these techniques are, are really useful beyond the problems that we
talked about. The idea of random projections, which we
didn't quite discuss is, is really useful in dealing with very large data sets.
It, it's a very useful technique to reduce data sizes.
Nearest neighbor size data structures are, are very useful in, in searching large
complex high dimensional data sets. And designing half functions like the ones
that we saw. You know for set similarity, they're
actually the building blocks of designing very, very efficient data searches to do
these search problems. There's a little issue with randomness.
We've sort of assumed that everything is completely random, we have completely
random hash function. Turns out in practice is not really true.
There's a way to fix this, which. I'm afraid we won't be able to discuss.
And so, in conclusion, I just wanted to say that you know?
There are a lot of cool ideas, Two article ideas which are very practical in design.
That are useful for designing algorithms and working with very large data sets.
I want to give you a glimpse of this algorithmic tool kit.
It was a shorter glimpse than I had. Thought I would do.
But you know, there are many interesting problems here.
I hope I will motivate some of you to think about them.
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