[NOISE] So we'll switch gears just a little bit. We talked a little bit about lactose as disaccharide. And the sugar at lactose, with an O. The enzyme in the intestine that degrades lactose is called lactase, with an A. So this is the enzyme, this is the sugar, it's also sometimes called beta galactosidase, that's another name for the activity in this. In fact, that enzyme has a couple of different enzyme activities. Digesting or degrading or breaking down the, separating the glucose from the galactose is one of those activities. There's another activity that it actually has. So, let's see, let's see where this is on the intestine. This is a rat intestine. The villi, so, we got these villi here, lots and lots of villi, the enterocytes are these cells on the outside. And then on the, you can't really see it in this picture, but on the edge, or the outer edge of each of these enterocytes that are lining these villi, are something called the brush border. And on the outside of that is where you find the lactase enzyme activity. So let's go ahead and rid of that one. So what happens when the newborn, the newborn mammal they have lactase. And in most species, in fact, man maybe not the only one that we have a potential persistence of lactase activity in the intestine as the animal matures and becomes an adult. And this is called lactase persistency. It occurs, particularly, in people who are derived from lineages coming from Northern Europe. And there's relationships between that and actually dairy, dairy industries, and so on, and so forth. And so, there's some theories about how that has happened, but then many people in the world, in fact most people in the world are what we call lactose intolerant. They do not tolerate lactose. They do not have lactase persistency, and there's a whole bunch of names of these different kind of conditions that come under this heading of lactose intolerance. It's also called lactase, that is again the enzyme lactase non-persistence, which would be the opposite of lactase's persistence. Primary adults hypolactasia, lactose maldigestion, and so again, these three names, basically these four names are essentially the same kind of thing. Congenital alactasia would be a newborn infant would be born without an active lactase, enzyme activity, so right off the bat they've got a problem digesting lactose. And then secondary required hypolactasia. This is when something happens in intestine. So the lining of intestinal wall starts to break down or something like that, and usually it's more temporary, and so you lose this lactase activity. So what are the kind of symptoms? So think about this for a moment. Again, the lactose, remember, is a disaccharide. And I indicated to you before that in the process of making lactose in the mammary of epithelial cell, the galactose and glucose are put together and that beta one, four bond between them. And the fact that it's a disaccharide, it can't get through the membrane so it draws water in and it's the same kind of thing in the intestine. It's in the intestine, it's not being broken down, it starts drawing water in. And so you get diarrhea is one potential symptom. Then as that lactose then passes on to the large intestine bacteria can ferment it, break it down, get fatty acids made that would cause problems, get gases made that cause bloating. And again, diarrhea and flatulence and those kinds of things. So, this is kind of really where we get into this lactose intolerance. And again, most people on earth are this. Some of us, I'm one of them, have lactose persistence. So, that kind of gives you an idea of these kind of conditions in humans and how that relates to this disaccharide called lactose, which is the major sugar in human milk. It's the major sugar in cow milk and many others. [SOUND]