Welcome to this week on value chains and clusters. This video introduces you to the role of value chains in local economic development. Value chains are crucial to understand local economic development options, as all firms at the local level who sell their products outside of their locality are involved in value chains. And the terms and conditions under which they can sell their goods are determined by how the value chain is organized and by whom. I will start with explaining what value chains are and how they are governed. Then, I will introduce how local firms can upgrade in the value chain, and I will conclude with the local economic development outcomes of being linked to value chains. To start with a definition, value chains consist of all the activities from raw materials, input suppliers, finance, to processing or manufacturing, to wholesale and retail, including logistics, post-sales services, and recycling. A simple value chain in the agricultural sector looks like this. Looking from the bottom-up, you can see how farmers use a variety of inputs from their suppliers need to get finance and research and development ideas, grow the products and then sell their produce to processors or manufacturers, who in turn sell to retailers who sell to consumers. The two large arrows show the flow of goods and products as I just mentioned. And the other arrow on the right shows the reverse flow of consumer preferences and orders that are pushed down the chain. The basic idea of the value chain is that different companies are involved in the distinct phases of growing, production, and retail. A good example of that is the textile and garment industry. Here, the different steps in the value chain are depicted horizontally, but the idea of the flow is the same. It starts with fibers like cotton that is grown on farms or nylon that is produced in factories. These fibers are spun into yarn and then woven into basic fabrics. And next step is the coloring and the actual making of the garments to the specifications of the brands and the retailers. These steps are often undertaken by different companies in different countries. The most powerful companies in these value chains are not the producers, but the companies who own the brand names and/or take care of the retailing. Here, you see some of those brand names of companies in the garment and clothing industry. Such companies usually do not produce the garments sold under their brand names. The fibers, the yarn, and the actual production of the garments with their brand name is produced by independent farmers and factories across the globe. This is true for products like garments and shoes, for agricultural products like chocolate, tea, and coffee, and also for more complicated products like mobile phones. These brands and big retailers like Wal-Mart, Carrefour, or Tesco are the so-called lead firms in buyer-driven value chains that they manage or govern even though they do not formally own the firms that produce the inputs, intermediaries, or end-products that they sell in stores around the world. Now, this is also very relevant for local economic development. Local firms who sell their products to buyers outside their locality are usually part of regional, national, or global value chains. The relationship between the outside lead buyer and local firms is usually managed or governed through one out of the following three governance models. First, market exchange on the basis of supply and demand of standardized components or products that can be bought off the shelf. This is the economics textbook example of how markets would function. But actually, this is not very frequent in practice. Second, a much more common for firms producing for lead buyers is the captive governance model in which outside buyers specify in detail what and how local firms should produce. Even though these firms are formally independent, the lead firm controls the process often literally with sending in quality control inspectors. For example, Nike shoes, all look the same once they are in the retail shop, but they are produced in factories all around the world with strict instructions by Nike quality control inspectors. The third governance model is relational. Here, the local firm also possesses key skills that the lead firm is eager to make use of, like, for example, design skills or a specific high quality type of embroidery on garments based on a local tradition and with appeal in the global market. In this model, the relationship between the outside buyer and the local firm is based on interdependence and has more likelihood to develop also trust. This stands in contrast to the market model, which is anonymous, and the captive model that is based on dependence. This relational model requires more skills and is less common among local suppliers. I will show that the relational model offers the best opportunities for endogenous local economic development. In order to explain the LED outcomes of being included in value chains, I first need to introduce the idea of upgrading in the value chain. Global buyers have a wide choice of suppliers. And in a more globalized economy, this has led to increased competition and a need for improvement or upgrading by local firms. Upgrading has become a necessity because all your competitors are also trying to improve. This is known as running to stand still, meaning that when you do not improve, you will fall behind. And when you upgrade as much as others, you still do not improve your relative position. In this session, I distinguish three types of upgrading. The first is process upgrade, which is about improving the quality of the processes of production or growing or distribution. For example, a new machine that can produce faster and more accurate or a quality management system that reduces reject and standardizes the quality. The second is product upgrade, which is about producing higher quality products. For example, through using higher quality inputs and more sophisticated designs. The third is functional upgrading, which deals with engaging in higher value-added activities in the chain. For example, profits are usually much higher when you can sell a branded product as compared to only producing for somebody else's brand. So, a local company, who also develops its own branding strategy, may earn much more if the value added. This third type of upgrading is most important in terms of generating more endogenous LED opportunities, but it is also the most difficult one to achieve. Now to conclude the session, we can now integrate the governance models with the types of upgrading and identify different possible LED outcomes. The pluses in the table indicate a positive relationship, the minuses a negative, and the plus/minus represents an unclear outcome. As you can see in the table, the market governance model does not provide us with any clarity on LED outcomes. Local firms are basically left to their own devices, and the relationship with buyers does not play a clear role in terms of upgrading. This is very different with the captive governance model. In this model, very fast and imported progress is usually made in process upgrade often with the direct support of the outside buyers who have an interest in upgrading their suppliers in terms of standardizing quality. When local firms produce to the satisfaction of these buyers, these buyers also often provide support at a later stage with product upgrade. But the major limitation for endogenous local economic development in the captive governance model is that outside buyers will obstruct functional upgrading by local firms as this would encroach upon the core business model of the elite firms in the value chain. The more balanced opportunities come from the relational governance model, where buyers have an interest to support the process, product, and functional upgrading by local firms, while a relational governance model is thus most attractive in terms of offering more LED opportunities. It is also the most demanding as it requires local firms to be able to offer some relatively unique competences and skills that cannot be easily offered or developed by other local firms in other regions. This finding reinforces the crucial importance of investing in developing such competences at local level. After a careful identification of the specific value chain and type of activity in which the local economy can offer such relatively unique competences, the actual LED strategies that can be developed from these findings will depend also on local competences of entrepreneurs and workers on the extent to which a localized drive towards learning and upgrading already exists, and it depends on the specificities of the value chains that local firms are involved in or want to become involved in. This will be further discussed in, for example, the video on business development and in our next video on clusters. Thank you for your attention.