This module introduces structural biology as an essential framework for understanding how biological macromolecules perform their functions. Because macromolecules, such as proteins, range from only one to ten nanometers in size, they exist far beyond the resolution limits of standard optical microscopes. Consequently, their structures cannot be observed directly. To overcome this fundamental limitation, scientists must rely on advanced physical techniques, primarily X-ray crystallography, to accurately visualize and map their precise three-dimensional atomic structures, which fundamentally dictate their biological mechanisms and interactions within the cell.

This module introduces translational medicine, tracing how discoveries move from basic laboratory research toward clinical application. It begins with an overview of cancer biology, then focuses on post-translational modification (PTM), a regulatory layer that lets a limited set of genes generate much greater protein functional diversity, shaping cell survival, inflammation, and tumor progression. The ubiquitination system is presented as the central case study: a quality-control mechanism that determines protein fate, whose dysregulation is linked to cancer. The module then draws on research examples from liver, breast, and pancreatic cancer, showing how specific regulatory proteins affect tumor survival and signaling, and their potential as future biomarkers.